Amur Leopard | amur-leopard

Panthera Pardus Orientalis (Amur Leopard)

Figure 14. Photos taken on a captive bred Amur Leopard within Yorkshire Wildlife Park (Morley, 2015).

The Panthera Pardus Orientalis (see figure 14) is one of the most endangered cat species in the world. Originally found within North-Eastern Asia, South-Eastern Russia, the Korean Peninsula, and North-Eastern China, their ecosystem has been reduced into the last wild species remaining in the Russian Far East (Uphyrkina et al, 2002). They prefer to reside in mountainous forests that are known to heavily snow annually, and are named after the Amur River that they inhabit near (Nemeth, 2012).

In 2007 it was revealed that there were less than 35 wild Panthera Pardus Orientalis, but recent studies have estimated that there are at least 70 individuals. Despite population increasing in the wild from conservation efforts, they are still critically endangered and at risk of future extinction (Erie Zoo, 2009). Panthera Pardus Orientalis has been confirmed to have the lowest levels of genetic variation of any other leopard subspecies, making them both scarce and at risk within the gene pool (Bove, 2014).

Figure 15 shows statistics of wild Panthera Pandus Orientalis spotted between 2002-2011, showing their gradual increase throughout the years. It is however exhibited that decreases were found within 2006 and 2008; this may be due to young Panthera Pardus Orientalis not surviving their first year, heavily influencing the small population numbers.

Figure 15. Population Numbers of wild Amur Leopard sightings from 2002-2011 (The Endangered Project, 2013).

Panthera Pardus Orientalis has significantly reduced its previous vast distribution range to the Russian Far East, most likely due to the loss of land affecting the distribution of prey (see figure 16). With scarce prey, Panthera Pardus Orientalis has had to move to a location where prey is most profound. One of the most important prey species for Panthera Pardus Orientalis are Cervus Nippon (Sika Deer), who are found in abundance in Quercus (Oak) forests. Quercus rely on damp lowlands and clay terrains, and are very hardy in wet conditions, which make these more prominent around the rivers found within Primorksy Krai (The Moray Council, 2008). Because of this, Cervus Nippon are found along the river to forage, and Panthera Pardus Orientalis distribute themselves nearby for frequent hunts.

Due to their rarity, various conservation programs have been created for the species, including the World-Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), Wildlife Vets International (WVI), Amur Leopard & Tiger Association (ALTA), Wildlife Conservation Society – Russia (WCS-Russia), and the Amur Leopard Wildlife Health Programme (ALWHP). These organisations work together to track Panthera’s through camera traps and tagging found cats, in order to monitor the status of the species and their overall population and habitat range (Wildlife Vets International, 2011).

Cervus Nippon have been known to follow the rivers into new territory, and have begun reintroducing themselves into the Heilongjiang Province of China, and Panthera Pardus Orientalis have been sighted slowly reintroducing themselves into the country alongside them (see figure 16) (McCullough et al, 2008).

Panthera Pardus Orientalis also has evidence of their distribution choices being affected by the distribution of Panthera Tigris Altaica (Amur Tiger). These predators share the same prey, but are unlikely to be found within the same territory (Jiang et al, 2015). It has been seen that Panthera Pardus Orientalis avoid habitats with Panthera Trigris Altaica, most likely due to the larger cat being more successful during confrontations and have more capability of killing leopard species. Conflict has been witnessed where tigers have chased off multiple leopards, but fights/kills occur rarely (Harihar et al, 2011).

Figure 16. A map identifying the past and present distribution of amur leopards (Tendua, 2008).

Many zoos are in corporation with these organisations and breed captive bred Panthera Pardus Orientalis for conservation purposes.

The Yorkshire Wildlife Park for example have a breeding pair of Panthera Pardus Orientalis, who birthed three cubs in 2015. Every birth is considered significant, regardless of if they’re wild or captive bred (Bleiman, 2011).

The video to the left shows successful breeding within the Yorkshire Wildlife Park.

Inbreeding has become a concern within Panthera Pardus Orientalis. Heart murmurs have been seen to become a reoccurring disorder within the species, and recent studies have discovered that some cats are being born with mutations, including short bobbed tails instead of their distinct long tails (see figure 17). This heavily hinders their ability to climb trees, which is an important trait for Panthera's, who use this ability to drag their prey into trees to avoid scavengers.

Figure 17. A comparison between a leopardess and offspring in regards to a mutation of shorter tails (Wildlife Vets International, 2011).

Another disadvantage to a shallow gene pool is the inability to adapt to risks of diseases. Inbreeding causes individuals to share identical traits, and thus limiting genetic diversity within the species. This lack of variations can be catastrophic in the result of an epidemic. This proves to be a risk, as Ursus Thibetanus (Asiatic Black Bears) reside in the same environment as Panthera Pardus Orientalis and are known to carry canine distemper virus, which has proven to be lethal to Panthera species (Wildlife Vets International, 2011).

Panthera Pardus Orientalis are thought to be in conflict with another large wild cat, Panthera Tigris Altaica. Whilst no evidence of physical conflict has been shown, both cats share the same prey and depending on their succession rate of catching prey, can put each other at a disadvantage in competition for food. Panthera prey consists of Sus Scrofa (Wild Boar), Capreolus Pygargus (Roe Deer), and previously mentioned Cervus Nippon (Csiszar et al, 2008).

Figure 18 shows the increased and decreased population of prey in association to where foliage is found, indicating where Panthera are most likely to hunt near.

If there was a significant loss of Quercus trees, for example, both Capreolus Pygargus and Cervus Nippon species would diminish significantly, severely effecting the rate of prey that either Panthera species have access to.

Limited prey would result in more competition between cat species, and significant loss of numbers for both parties. Because of this, it is important for the ecosystem to be maintained for the further succession of the species.

Figure 18. A chart showing the average increase/decrease of plant species in relation to prey animals within the same habitat (Csiszar et al, 2008).

It is important that the number of prey does not overpopulate; if this were to occur, herbivorous prey would overeat plant species and stunt any needed growth for development of seed dispersal. Plants would struggle to grow, and would eventually be too scarce to uphold the population of herbivores. A sudden decrease in prey for Panthera Pardus Orientalis would significantly affect their chances of survival, and would only approach the risk of extinction sooner (New Hampshire Public Television, 2015).

Organisms within the same ecosystem coexist with each other, creating a niche within their habitats. A niche is an organism’s ‘ecological position within the world’ (Vandermeer, 1972). This is thought to be their specific role that they were naturally designed to follow in order to survive the habitat they are found within.

Within these niches food chains and food webs are created. These explain the path that energy travels from one individual to another through consumption. Food chains are short and usually focus on a few common animals, whereas foodwebs are created in regards to every species within their niche (Barrow, 2013).

Within a food chain there are trophic levels. Trophic (Greek meaning 'feeding') levels are the position of an organism found within a food chain (Butz, 2002). These explain where energy comes from and who it travels to (see figure 19).

Trophic levels lose energy between consumers through heat. Because of this, predators need to consume more prey in order to compensate for the loss of energy. It is commonly seen within successful environments that there should always be more abundance in prey than predators for the niche to flourish. Due to top predators being dependant on the lower trophic levels, they are also the most susceptible to endangerment from any changes within the environment. If a lower trophic level was reduced or removed, tertiary consumers would perish soon after (Boundless, 2016).

A keystone species is a particular species found within a niche that can significantly alter the environment around them, influencing most other remaining species. A sudden loss of a keystone species would result in the majority of the niche population to be severely affected or hindered (Mills et al, 1993).

Quercus are known to be a common keystone species within habitats, including Primorsky Krai. Quercus are sturdy and can tolerate acidic soil and flooding. They are also capable with growing with other woodland plants without difficulty and are able to sprout and grow quickly, providing food and shelter to surrounding organisms (The Moray Council, 2008). If Querus forests were to be removed from the niche, Capreolous Pygarus and Cervus Nippon would be severely affected from the loss of food, further risking the species to starvation or relocating. The loss of both species would have a negative impact on Panthera Pardus Orientalis, who uses both deer as its main sources of prey, and would lead to the species extinction (ALTA, 2015).

Despite conservation efforts and succession with increasing the population numbers of Panthera Pardus Orientalis, their succession is hindered by multiple human factors, including:

Logging/Deforestation

Land is lost to human development; less trees mean less habitat and less food for prey species, reducing both land quantity and driving out prey species that Panthera’s are dependant on (Wildlife Vets International, 2015).

Forest Fires

Forest fires are a common occurrence within Russia, both set naturally and by human interference. Some forest fires are purposely set by humans to turn woodlands into grasslands for livestock. Whilst the livestock are used for stunting further growth of woodlands, they also become tempting prey for any surviving Panthera’s, who then get shot by farmers for trespassing (Nemeth, 2012).

Agricultural Land Conversion Projects

Development of land, farming and plot is removing needed territory for all organism species, driving away needed prey. Less prey causes Panthera’s to interact with humans in relation to foraging for prey (Gataulina and Waggener, 1998).

Human Conflict

Farming deer is a popular practice in Russia; these farms are set within previous destroyed land that Panthera Pardus Orientalis and their prey once resided within. The large cats become desperate enough to prey upon livestock and farmers kill whatever may threaten their business (Dubinin and Yanitskaya, 2005).

Poaching

Panthera Pardus Orientalis have thick furred coats with unique rosette patterns, making their fur a valuable popular accessory. Illegal poachers are known to attempt to hunt what few cats are left for the price of their pelts (Bove, 2014).

In order to prevent the removal or reduction of species within a niche, management strategies can be implemented. These can include:

Animal Conservation

Supporting and aiding the conservation of species that are struggling within their niches through donations and voluntary work. Organisations can purchase land and create reserves for wild animals and protect land from being disrupted by human activity (Mohamed bin Zayed Species Conservation Fund, 2013).

Population Control

If there were an abundance of prey, plants would be stunted of growth from overeating, whereas too little of prey would severely affect the hunting abilities of Panthera Pardus Orientalis. If prey were overpopulating, hunting regimes would be implemented to reduce population size. If there were too little, other breeding conservations may need ot be implemented and released into the wild (see figure 20) (Russia-trek, 2015).

Replant Trees

With land being lost frequently throughout Primorsky Krai through fires and farming, replanting trees for lost land could help aid the reintroduction of territory again (Newell, 2004).

The first level is known as a Primary Producer. Also known as an Autotroph (meaning to self-feed), this is the first organism to produce physical energy. These are usually plants or bacterial organisms, who can provide energy through photosynthesis from sunlight (Heckman, 2013). This stage is what all species depend on to provide energy, and is the main support for remaining organisms. An example can be Pinus Koraiensis (Korean Pine trees).

The next level is known as a Primary Consumer. Also known as a Heterotroph (meaning to feed from other organisms), this is the first stage to consume a producer (Margulis and Chapman, 2009). These usually consist of herbivorous organisms. An example can be Glis Glis (edible dormouse).

The next level is known as a Secondary Consumer. Another Heterotroph, this is where organisms consume the primary producer. These are usually omnivores and carnivores. An example can be Sus Scrofa.

The final level is known as a Tertiary Consumer. Heterotroph in nature, this is the top predator who has no natural consumers within their niche. Panthera Pardus Orientalis is an example of a Tertiary Consumer, as it is not preyed on any other species (aside from man) and will hunt most other consumers within their environment (Miller and Spoolman, 2007).

Figure 19. Tertiary Levels found within a food chain (Hall, 2009).

Figure 20. A wild amur leopard captured for a preliminary health assessment (Palmer, 2008).